复杂句写作方法

造句是英文写作的基础,同学们在托福作文备考过程中,应熟练掌握英文简单句和几种最常见的复杂句的写作要求和造句结构。在这一节中,高老师将向同学们介绍三类最常见的复杂句造句结构。首先,所有的复杂句都来源于简单句,而简单句的核心成分是一个主语和一个谓语。我们先来看一个例句,I ordered a pizza with pepperoni and pineapple. 这句话包含了两个成分,主语(subject noun phrase)“I” 和谓语(verb phrase)“ordered a pizza with pepperoni and pineapple”,事实上,不管句子有多复杂或者多简单,这两个成分也必须存在。而所谓复杂句结构其实也并不复杂。复杂句有两个主要成分,即主句(independent clause)和从句(dependent clause)。一个主句其实就是一个简单句,其构成规则和我们上面所说的一模一样,即它必须有一个主语和一个谓语。而从句则是不能独立于主句而单独存在的,它必须依附于一个主句。如果你单独写了一个从句但没有写主句,那这句话在英文语法里就是错误的。事实上,我们最常用的英文从句只有三类,即副词从句(adverb clauses),形容词从句(adjective clauses)和名词从句(noun clauses)。我们来依次看一下他们的用法。1. 副词从句(Adverb Clauses)副词从句可能是我们最常用到的,也是最简单的从句。很多同学在使用副词从句时往往都没有意识到自己其实在写复杂句。首先,我们需要注意副词从句只能由从属连词(subordinating conjunction)所引导。而这些从属连词不在从句充当任何成分,仅仅起到引导作用,从句有自己的主谓结构。副词从句有三类用法,修饰主句动词,修饰主句形容词和修饰主句其他副词,而每一类用法的从属连词都不一样。(a) 副词从句修饰主句动词我们先来看一个副词从句修饰主句动词的例句:I ordered a whole pizza because I had skipped lunch. 在这句话中,主句是“I ordered a whole pizza”,从句是“I had skipped lunch”,所用的从属连词是“because”表示因为。副词从句修饰主句动词时能用到的从属连词有很多,其中最常见的列表如下:表示时间: after, as, as soon as, before, even after, even before, since, until, when, whenever, while表示地点: everywhere, everyplace, where, wherever表示方式: as, as if, as though表示原因: as, because, in, as much as, since, so that表示条件: if, on condition that, provided that, unless表示让步: although, even though, though同学们可能注意到此类副词从句即可以放到主句后,也可以放到主句前。如果我们把从句放到主句前,那就要在两个句子间加逗号,比如“Because she has to lock up tonight, Sue needs the key.”(b) 副词从句修饰主句形容词副词从句还可以用于修饰主句形容词,我们来看一个例句: I am sorry that we missed you last night. 在这句话中,主句是“I am sorry”, 从句是“we missed you last night.”所用的从属连词是that修饰形容词“sorry”。副词从句修饰主句形容词词时能用到的从属连词有两个:that和than。同学们需要注意,副词从句只能用于修饰主句表语形容词,不能用于修饰主句中修饰另一个名词的形容词。比如:Sally sang a sad song, 这里“sad”不能被副词从句所修饰,因为“sad”不是表语形容词,而是修饰名词“song”的形容词。但在例句“I am sorry...”中,“sorry”则是由be动词“am”所引导的表语形容词。此外,如果要被修饰的表语形容词是比较级,则用“than”作为从属连词。我们来看例句:the dinner was more formal than I had expected, 在这个例句中,形容词“more formal”是比较级,所以从属连词应用“than”,从句则是“I had expected”。(c)副词从句修饰主句其他副词最后,副词从句还可以修饰主句的其他副词。我们来看例句:“Star Trek” ships went faster than any had gone before, 在这句话中,被修饰的主句副词是“faster”,从属连词是than,从句则是“any had gone before”。同学们需要注意的是,当副词从句修饰主句的其他副词时,被修饰的副词必须都是比较级,如better,faster等。2. 形容词从句(adjective clauses)形容词从句顾名思义,其作用和形容词一样,即用于修饰主句的名词。连接主句和形容词从句的关系代词共有5个:who, whom, whose, that和which。这些关系代词即可能在从句里充当主语成分,也可能在从句里充当宾语成分。如果关系代词在从句充当主语成分,则后面直接跟谓语动词,如果关系代词在从句里充当宾语成分,则从句有独立主语。我们现在来依次看一下这些关系代词的用法。(a) 关系代词Who例句:The sportscaster who is on channel 7 has worked as an investment banker. 在这个例句中,从句“who is on channel 7”修饰主句名词“sportscaster”,其中“who”作为形容词从句的主语,必须保留,后面跟谓语动词“is”。(b) 关系代词whom例句: She married a man whom she had met at work. 在这个例句中,“whom she had met at work”修饰主句名词“man”,其中“whom”是从句里“met”的宾语,可以被省略。从句有自己的独立主语,即“she”,后面跟谓语动词“met”。“whom”被省略后,句子变成:She married a man she had met at work.(c) 关系代词Whose例句:I contacted the person whose car I bumped into. 在这个例句中,“whose”是所有格代名词连接主句“I contacted the person”和从句“whose car I bumped into”,修饰“whose”后面的名词“car”。(d) 关系代词that例句1:The car (that) I was driving got a flat tire. 在这个例句中,从句“that I was driving”修饰主句名词“car”。因为“that”是从句动词“driving”的宾语,因此可以被省略。例句2:The car that was in the left lane suddenly put on its brakes. 在这个例句中,从句“that was in the left lane”也是修饰主句名词“car”。但因为“that”在这个例句中是充当从句的主语成分,因此不能被省略。(e) 关系代词which例句1:I finally read the book (which) you told me about. 在这个例句中,从句“which you told me about”修饰主句名词“book”。因为“which”是从句动词“told”的宾语,因此可以被省略。例句2:Barney's car, which was in the left lane, suddenly put on its brakes. 在这个例句中,从句“which was in the left lane”也是修饰主句名词“car”,但因为“which”在这个例句中是充当从句的主语成分,同样不能被省略。因为关系代词“that”和“which”都用于修饰主句中的名词,因此同学们有时会混淆什么时候用“that”,什么时候用“which”。一般而言,如果从句是一个非限定性从句(nonrestrictive clauses),则一律选择“which”,我们来看一个例句:Our house, which we just repainted, was damaged in the storm. 在这个例句中,“our house”没有被which所引导的从句所定义,因此我们用“which”来引导。但如果从句是一个限定性从句(restrictive clauses),我们通常使用that来引导从句。我们来看例句:The car that I was driving got a flat tire. 在这个从句中,名词“car”的意思被that所引导的从句定义了,即这个“car”是被我所驾驶的(“that I was driving”)。但我们也往往在限定性从句中使用“which”。我们来看例句:Render therefore unto Caesar the things which are Caesar's; and unto God the things that are God's. 在这个例句(凯撒的归凯撒,上帝的归上帝),头一句用了“which”去限定“things”(凯撒的东西),后一句用了“that”去限定“things”(上帝的东西)。3. 名词从句(noun clause)最后,我们来学习名词从句。名词从句顾名思义,就是可以充当主句中的名词成分,即可以充当主句中的主语(Subject),宾语(Object of verb),介词宾语(Object of preposition)和主语补语(Predicate nominative)。首先,同学们应该了解名词从句有两类连词,“that”类连词和“wh-”类连词。这两类连词所引导的从句都可以充当我们上面所说的四个主句成分。“That”类名词从句有四个连词:that, if,whether, whether or not。这四个连词在“that”类名词从句不充当任何成分,从句有自己的主谓结构。“That”类名词从句充当主句中的主语(Subject)。例句:Whether or not it rains will determine our destination. 在这个例句中,从句“whether or not it rains”是主句的主语。“That”类名词从句充当主句中的宾语(Object of verb)。例句:We wondered if we should go to the party. 在这个例句中,从句“if we should go to the party”是主句的宾语。“That”类名词从句充当主句的介词宾语(Object of preposition)。例句:We couldn't decide about whether we should leave. 在这个例句中,从句“whether we should leave”是主句的介词宾语。“That”类名词从句充当主句的主语补语(Predicate nominative)。例句: The plan is that we will reconvene after lunch. 在这个例句中,从句”that we will reconvene after lunch”是主句的主语补语。“Wh-”类名词从句多个连词,这些连词在“wh-”类从句中根据其属性充当相应成分,分类如下:连词在从句中充当名词成分(Noun):what, whatever, who, whoever, whom, whomever.连词在从句中充当形容词成分(Adjective):whose, which, whichever连词在从句中充当副词成分(Adverbs):when, whenever, where, wherever, why, how, however所有“wh-”类连词所引导的名词从句和“that”类连词所引导的名词从句,其从句充当主句中相应名词成分。“wh-”类名词从句充当主句中的主语(Subject)。例句:What you decide is fine with me. 在这个例句中,从句“what you decide”是主句的主语,而连词“what”则是为动词“decide”的宾语。“wh-”类名词从句充当主句中的宾语(Object of verb)。例句:I know where we can get a good pizza. 在这个例句中,从句“where we can get a good pizza”是主句的宾语,而连词“where”是动词“get”的副词。“wh-”类名词从句充当主句中的介词宾语(Object of preposition)。例句:We were aware of which choices were open to us. 在这个例句中,从句“which choices were open to us”是主句的介词宾语,而连词“which”则是修饰名词“choices”的形容词。“wh-”类名词从句充当主句中的主语补语(Predicate nominative)。例句:The situation is what we expected it would be. 在这个例句中,从句“what we expected it would be”是主句的主语补语,而连词“what”则是动词“be”的主语补语。